by Hudson Mims
The history of rockets
Take a short journey with us to uncover a brief history of rockets.
Early Rockets
Rocketry as a concept dates back a lot farther than most would assume. The earliest known device to use a form of rocket propulsion was around 400 B.C.E., when Greek philosopher Archytos created a bird-like device propelled by compressed air. Though, it of course looked nothing like rockets we know of today. Much later in 13th century China, gunpowder was used to create rocket-propelled fire arrows, though these more closely resembled fireworks than actual rockets. There was still a long way to go before we would even get close to seeing any kind of liquid-propelled rockets like the ones we have now.
Advances in Rocket Science
The first step had to be a major improvement in our understanding of rocket science and physics as a whole. Most notably, Isaac Newton’s laws of motion set the foundation for our understanding of the physics behind propulsion and rocketry. This foundation was then built upon by Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky, who is often credited with being the father of cosmonautics, when he developed the rocket equation. The rocket equation describes the relationship between a rocket's change in velocity, exhaust velocity (the speed of the propellant exiting the engine), and mass ratio (the ratio of the mass of the rocket when fully fueled, and the mass when all fuel has been used up). Tsiolkovsy also advocated for the use of liquid-propellant rocket engines, orbital space stations, harnessing solar energy, and many other things that we see implemented in the present day! Moving forward into the early 20th century, Robert H. Goddard flew the first ever liquid-propelled rocket! However, it did only fly up about 13 feet… Despite this, Goddard paved the way for rocketry as we know it, inventing gyroscopic control systems, instrumentation payloads, parachute recovery systems, and would later be a critical piece of the puzzle in getting to the moon!
The Rocket Equation:
Δv = v_e ln(m_0/m_f ), where Δv is the change in velocity, v_e is the exhaust velocity, m_0 is the mass with full fuel, and m_f is the mass with no fuel left.
World War II & The Cold War
Wartime innovations were the primary driving force of rocketry in the 20th century. In World War II, German scientist Wernher von Braun led the team that would ultimately develop the V2, a weaponized rocket with a one-ton explosive warhead. The V2 was the first rocket capable of reaching space, thousands were made towards the end of the war, though they had little impact. After the war had ended, von Braun and other German scientists were brought to the U.S. to continue the advancement of rocket technology under what is now known as “Operation Paperclip”. Many of these German scientists, especially von Braun, played a huge role in the development of the United States’ space program.
The Cold War, a period of political tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, was the next big step in the advancement of human spaceflight. The desire to out-compete one another sparked the Space Race, which was a period of significant progress in rocket science as the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. worked tirelessly to beat one another to outer space, orbit, and the moon. The Space Race was kicked off in 1957 with Sputnik I, a soviet satellite that was sent to orbit the Earth for a few hours. Sputnik was launched on the “Sputnik Rocket”, which was a modified version of the soviet R7 ICBM (The world's first Intercontinental ballistic missile). Sputnik was monumental in that it sparked the curiosity and fear across the U.S. that led to the rapid development of the U.S. space program. The U.S. launched its first satellite, Explorer I, in 1958. Explorer I launched on the Jupiter 1-C rocket, which was a three-stage modified ballistic missile. .
Many other rockets saw their debut amid the Space Race as well. The Atlas was a U.S. rocket family that saw much use throughout the Cold War sending up satellites, conducting research, and later developing the International Space Station. The Atlas V is even still being used today! The Titan rocket family served many similar functions to that of the Atlas, but brought much advancement to the exploration of deep space via probes such as Voyager I, a probe which is still returning scientific data to this day, now at the far reaches of the solar system! The Delta rocket family was another very successful NASA project that saw over 300 successful launches, the last of which was in April of 2024. The Saturn V was the next big milestone for rockets, as it was designed to take humans from the Earth to the moon. It stood at 111 meters tall, weighed 2.8 million kilograms, and generated 34.5 million newtons of thrust at launch. The Saturn V launched the first U.S. space station, Skylab, and was the rocket that took humanity to set foot on the moon in the Apollo missions. The Saturn V is one of the most iconic rockets to have ever flown and remains to this day the most powerful rocket ever built.
Modern-day Rockets
Towards the end of the Cold War, NASA began work on the space shuttle program.
The Space Shuttle was NASA’s solution to creating a reusable orbiting spacecraft, it was designed to have heat-shielded wings that allowed for reentry and landing on a (very very long) runway like an airplane. The launch system consisted of a central external fuel tank (the only non-reusable part of the spacecraft) with two solid rocket boosters attached on the side. The space shuttle program brought forth enormous scientific advancements, from the deployment of telescopes and space probes, to getting astronauts/scientific equipment to and from the International Space Station. There were a total of 135 shuttle missions, the program was ultimately shut down though as it became too costly and there were growing concerns for safety after the Challenger and Columbia disasters.
The Space Launch System, or the SLS, is NASA’s modern-day rocket. It will serve to take humans back to the moon for the first time since Apollo. The new mission, Artemis, plans to take humanity back to the moon, and this time establish a permanent human presence! Outside of NASA, private companies are now also hard at work advancing rocket technology. SpaceX developed the Falcon-9 rocket which has boosters capable of landing for re-use! SpaceX has also created the new tallest rocket ever, Starship, which will be used in coordination with NASA during the Artemis missions as well. Many many other companies are also working to further access to space. United Launch Alliance, Rocket Lab, and Blue Origin are all launch companies that help get other companies’ satellites into Earth’s orbit. Sierra Space is developing the Dream Chaser, a winged spacecraft that could fulfill the role the Space Shuttle once maintained. Axiom Space is developing what could be the first-ever private space station and aims to take over for the I.S.S. which is soon to retire. There are so many more companies and organizations out there working to achieve what has never been accomplished and pushing the boundaries of space exploration to take humanity to greater heights. There is a lot that is still unknown, and a lot still to accomplish in the rocket and space exploration industry!.
What's that boom?
With the Space Industry heading towards $1.8 trillion by 2035, the speed of advancements in propulsion will be mind-blowing. Stay tuned as we follow along!
